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<title>Circuit Simulator Applet Directions</title>
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<body bgcolor=white lang=EN-US link=blue vlink=blue style='tab-interval:.5in'>

<div class=Section1>

<div class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'>

<hr size=2 width="100%" align=center>

</div>


<p class=MsoNormal><a href="index.html">Click here to go to the applet.</a> </p>

<p>This java applet is an electronic circuit simulator.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>When the applet starts up you will see
a simple LRC circuit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The green
color indicates positive voltage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>The gray color indicates ground.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>A red color indicates negative voltage.<span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">&nbsp; </span>The moving yellow dots indicate current.</p>

<p>To turn a switch on or off, just click on it.<span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">&nbsp; </span>If you move the mouse over any component of the circuit, you
will see a short description of that component and its current state in the
lower right corner of the window.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>To modify a component (say, to change the resistance of one of the
resistors), move the mouse over it, click the right mouse button (or
control-click, if you have a Mac) and select “Edit”.</p>

<p>There are three graphs at the bottom of the window; these act like
oscilloscopes, each one showing the voltage and current across a particular
component.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Voltage is shown in
green, and current is shown in yellow.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>The current may not be visible if the voltage graph is on top of
it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The peak value of the voltage
in the scope window is also shown.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>Move the mouse over one of the scope views, and the component it is
graphing will be highlighted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>To
modify or remove a scope, click the right mouse button over it.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>To view a component in the scope, click
the right mouse button over the component and select “View in Scope”.</p>

<p>If the simulation is moving too slowly or too quickly, you can adjust the
speed with the “Simulation Speed” slider.</p>


<div class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'>

<hr size=2 width="100%" align=center>

</div>


<p>The <b>Circuits menu</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> can be used to
view some interesting pre-defined circuits. Once a circuit is selected, you may
modify it all you want. The choices are: </span></p>

<ul type=disc>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Basics</b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Resistors</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: this shows some resistors of various sizes
      in series and parallel.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Capacitor</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: this shows a capacitor that you can charge
      and discharge by clicking on the switch.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Inductor</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: this shows an inductor that you can charge
      and discharge by clicking on the switch.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/serres.html#c1">LRC
      Circuit</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: this shows an
      oscillating circuit with an inductor, resistor, and capacitor.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>You can close the switch to get
      current moving in the inductor, and then open the switch to see the
      oscillation.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/voldiv.html">Voltage
      Divider</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: this shows a voltage
      divider, which generates a reference voltage of 7.5V, 5V, and 2.5V from
      the 10V power supply.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/thevenin.html">Thevenin’s
      Theorem</a> </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>states that the circuit
      on top is equivalent to the circuit on the bottom.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/norton.html">Norton’s
      Theorem</a> </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>states that the circuit
      on top is equivalent to the circuit on the bottom.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>A/C Circuits<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/accap.html#c1">Capacitor</a></b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: this shows a capacitor connected to an
      alternating voltage source.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/acind.html#c1">Inductor</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Caps of Various
      Capacitances</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows the response of
      three different capacitors to the same frequency.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Caps w/ Various
      Frequencies</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows the response of
      three equal capacitors to three different frequencies; the higher the
      frequency, the larger the current.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Inductors of
      Various Inductances</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows the
      response of three different inductors to the same frequency.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Inductors w/
      Various Frequencies</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows the
      response of three equal inductors to three different frequencies: the
      lower the frequency, the larger the current.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Impedances of Same
      Magnitude</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows a capacitor, an
      inductor, and a resistor that have impedances of equal magnitude (but
      different phase).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The peak
      current is the same in all three cases.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/serres.html#c2">Series
      Resonance</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows three identical
      LRC circuits being driven by three different frequencies.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The middle one is being driven at
      the resonance frequency (shown in the lower right corner of the screen as
      “res.f”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The top one is
      being driven at a slightly lower frequency, and the bottom one has a
      slightly higher frequency.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>The peak voltage in the middle circuit is very high because it is
      resonating with the source.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/parres.html#c1">Parallel
      Resonance</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: these three circuits
      have the inductor, resistor, and capacitor in parallel instead of
      series.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>In this case, the
      middle circuit is being driven at resonance, which causes the current
      there to be lower than in the other two cases (because the impedance of
      the circuit is highest at resonance).</span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Passive Filters<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/filcap.html">High-Pass
      Filter (RC)<span style='font-weight:normal'>.</span></a><span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></b><span style='font-weight:
      normal'>The original signal is shown at the lower left, and the filtered
      signal (with the low-frequency part removed) is shown to the right.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The breakpoint (-3 dB point) is
      shown at the lower right, as “f.3db”.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/filcap2.html#c1">Low-Pass
      Filter (RC).</a></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>High-Pass Filter (RL).</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'><span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>This high-pass filter uses an inductor rather than a capacitor.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Low-Pass Filter
      (RL). </b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Band-Pass Filter</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: this filter passes a range of frequencies
      close to the resonance frequency (shown at the lower right, as “res.f”).</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Notch Filter</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: Also known as a band-stop filter, this
      circuit filters out a range of frequencies close to the resonance
      frequency.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Twin-T Filter</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: This filter does a very good job of
      filtering out 60 Hz signals.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Crossover: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'><span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;</span>A
      set of three filters; the top one passes low frequencies, the middle one
      passes midrange, and the bottom one passes high frequencies.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Other Passive Circuits<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Series/Parallel<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Inductors in
       Series</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>. <span style="mso-spacerun:
       yes">&nbsp;</span>The circuit at left is equivalent to the circuit at
       right.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Inductors in
       Parallel.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Caps in Series.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Caps in Parallel.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Transformers<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/transf.html#c1">Transformer</a>:
       </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>A basic transformer circuit with an
       equal number of windings in each coil.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Transformer w/ DC:
       </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Here we try to pass a DC current
       through a transformer.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Step-Up
       Transformer: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Here we step 10 V up
       to 100 V.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Step-Down
       Transformer: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Here we step 120 V
       down to 12 V.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>3-Way Light
      Switches</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows how a light bulb can
      be turned on and off from two locations.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>3- and 4-Way Light
      Switches</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows how a light bulb can
      be turned on and off from three locations.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Differentiator</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: shows how a capacitor can act as a
      differentiator, reflecting changes in voltage.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatstone_bridge">Wheatstone Bridge</a></b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: shows a balanced Wheatstone bridge.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>If the bridge were not balanced,
      current would be flowing across from one leg to the other.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RLC_circuit">Critically Damped LRC</a>.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Current Source</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: shows a source that keeps the current
      through the circuit constant regardless of the switch positions.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Inductive Kickback</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: In this circuit, we have a switch that
      controls the supply of current to an inductor.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>An inductor resists any changes in current.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>If you open the switch, the
      inductor tries to maintain the same current; it does this by charging the
      capacitance between the contacts of the switch.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>(Any two wires in close proximity have some parasitic
      capacitance between them.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>There is a small capacitor (much larger than the actual value)
      across the switch terminals to simulate this.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>When you open the switch, the voltage goes very high;
      in real life, this would cause arcing.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Blocking Inductive
      Kickback</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows how inductive
      kickback can be blocked with a “snubber” circuit.<br style='mso-special-character:
      line-break'>
      <![if !supportLineBreakNewLine]><br style='mso-special-character:line-break'>
      <![endif]></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/powfac.html">Power
      Factor</a>: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>This circuit shows an
      inductor being driven by an AC voltage.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>The colors indicate power consumption; red means that
      a component is consuming power, and green means that the component is
      contributing power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The left
      side of the circuit represents the power company’s side, and the right side
      represents a factory (with a large induction motor).<br>
      <br>
      The highly inductive load is causing the power company to work a lot
      harder than normal for a given amount of power delivered.</span><b><span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></b><span style='font-weight:
      normal'>The graph on the left indicates the power lost in the power
      company’s equipment (the resistor at top left).<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>The graph in the middle is the power delivered to the
      factory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The graph on the
      right is the power delivered to the inductor (and then returned, causing
      the time average of power delivered to be zero).<br>
      <br>
      Even though a peak power of 40 mW is being delivered to the factory, 200
      mW is being dissipated in the power company’s wires.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>This is why power companies
      charge extra for inductive loads.</span><b><br style='mso-special-character:
      line-break'>
      <![if !supportLineBreakNewLine]><br style='mso-special-character:line-break'>
      <![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits/AC/AC_11.html">Power
      Factor Correction:</a> </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Here a
      capacitor has been added to the circuit, causing far less energy to be
      wasted in the power company’s wires (aside from an initial spike to
      charge the capacitor).</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Resistor Grid</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: shows current flowing in a two-dimensional
      grid of resistors.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Resistor Grid 2.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Coupled LC's<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New"'>o<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>LC Modes(2)</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>:
Shows both modes of two coupled LC circuits.</span></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New"'>o<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>Weak Coupling.</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> </span></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New"'>o<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>LC Modes(3)</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>:
Shows all 3 modes of 3 coupled LC circuits.</span></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New"'>o<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>LC Ladder</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This
circuit is a simple model of a transmission line.<span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">&nbsp; </span>A pulse propagates down the length of the ladder like a
wave.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The resistor at the end has
a value equal to the characteristic impedance of the ladder (determined by the
ratio of L to C), which causes the wave to be absorbed.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>A larger resistance or an open circuit
will cause the wave to be reflected; a smaller resistance or a short will cause
the wave to be reflected negatively.</span><b><span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">&nbsp; </span></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>See the Feynman
Lectures 22-6, 7.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<ul type=disc>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Phase-Sequence
      Network:</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> This circuit generates a
      series of sine waves with a phase difference of 90°.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lissajous_curve">Lissajous Figures</a>:
      </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Just for fun.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Diodes</b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Half-Wave Rectifier</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit removes the negative part of an
      input waveform.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Full-Wave Rectifier</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit replaces a waveform with its
      absolute value.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Full-Wave Rectifier
      w/ Filter</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit smoothes out
      the rectified waveform, doing a pretty good job of converting AC to DC.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Diode I/V Curve</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: This demonstrates the response of a diode to
      an applied voltage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The
      voltage source generates a sawtooth wave, which starts out at –800 mV and
      slowly rises to 800 mV, and then immediately drops back down again.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Diode Limiter</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>DC Restoration.</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'><span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>This takes an AC signal and adds a DC offset, making it a positive
      signal.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Blocking Inductive
      Kickback</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: shows how inductive
      kickback can be blocked with a diode.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Spike Generator.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Voltage Multipliers<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Voltage Doubler</b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'>: Doubles the voltage in the AC input signal
       (minus two diode drops), and turns it into DC.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Voltage Doubler 2<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Voltage Tripler<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Voltage Quadrupler<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/amfmdet.html#c1">AM
      Detector</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This is a “crystal
      radio”, an AM radio receiver with no amplifier.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>The raw antenna feed is shown in the first scope slot
      in the lower left.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The
      inductor and the capacitor C1 are tuned to 3 kHz, the frequency shown in
      the lower right as “res.f”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>This picks up the carrier wave shown in the middle scope
      slot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>A diode is used to
      rectify this, and the C2 capacitor smoothes it out to generate the audio
      signal in the last scope slot (which is simply a 12 Hz sine wave in this
      example).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>By experimenting
      with the value of C1’s capacitance, you can pick up two other “stations”
      at 2.71 kHz and 2.43 kHz.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Triangle-to-Sine
      Converter</b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Transistors<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Switch</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/npncc.html#c2">Emitter
      Follower</a>.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_astable.html">Astable
      Multivibrator</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: A simple
      oscillator.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The applet has
      trouble simulating this circuit, so there might be a slight delay every
      time one of the transistors switches on.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_bistable.html">Bistable
      Multivibrator</a> (Flip Flop)</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This
      circuit has two states; use the set/reset switches to toggle between
      them.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_monostable.html">Monostable
      Multivibrator</a> (One-Shot)</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: When
      you hit the switch, the output will go to 1.7 V for a short time, and
      then drop back down.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Common-Emitter
      Amplifier</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit amplifies
      the voltage of the input signal by about 10 times.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Unity-Gain Phase
      Splitter: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Outputs two signals 180°
      out of phase from each other.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_schmitt.html">Schmitt
      Trigger</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Current Source</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: The current is the same regardless of the
      switch position.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Current Source
      Ramp:</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> Uses a current source to
      generate a ramp waveform every time you hit the switch.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Current Mirror</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: The current on the right is the same as the
      current on the left, regardless of the position of the right switch.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Differential
      Amplifiers<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Differential Input:
       </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>This circuit subtracts the first
       signal from the second and amplifies it.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Common-Mode Input:</b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'> This shows a differential amplifier with two
       equal inputs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The output
       should be a constant value, but instead the input waveforms make it
       through to the output (attenuated rather than amplified).<span
       style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>(When both inputs change
       together, that is called “common-mode input”; the “common-mode rejection
       ratio” is the ability of a differential amplifier to ignore common-mode
       signals and amplify only the difference between the inputs.)</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Common-Mode
       w/Current Source: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>This is an
       improved differential amplifier that uses a current source as a
       load.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The common-mode
       rejection ratio is very good; the circuit amplifies the small
       differences between the two inputs, and ignores the common-mode signal.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Push-Pull Follower:
      </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>This is another type of emitter
      follower.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Oscillators<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Colpitts
       Oscillator<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Hartley Oscillator<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Emitter-Coupled LC
       Oscillator<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><a
     href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/fet.html">JFETs</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>JFET Current Source<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>JFET Follower: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>This is like an emitter follower, except that
      the output is 3V more positive than the input.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>JFET Follower
      w/zero offset<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/fet.html#c4">Common-Source
      Amplifier</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Volume Control:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> Here the JFET is used like a variable
      resistor.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><a
     href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/mosfet.html">MOSFETs</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/buffer.html#c3">CMOS
      Inverter</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: The white “H” is a
      logic input.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Click on it to
      toggle its state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>“H” means
      “high” (5 V) and “L” means “low” (0 V).<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>The output of the inverter is shown at right, and is
      the opposite of the input.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>In this (idealized) simulation, the CMOS inverter draws no current
      at all.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>CMOS Inverter
      (w/capacitance)</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: In reality, there
      are two reasons that CMOS gates draw current.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>This circuit demonstrates the first reason:
      capacitance between the MOSFET gate and its source and drain.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>It requires current to charge
      this capacitance, which consumes power.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>It also causes a short delay when changing state.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>CMOS Inverter (slow
      transition)</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: The other reason that
      CMOS gates draw current is that both transistors will conduct at the same
      time when the input is halfway between high and low.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>This causes a current spike when
      the input is in transition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>In this circuit, there is a low-pass filter on the input which
      causes it to transition slowly, so you can see the spike.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>CMOS Transmission
      Gate</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit will pass any
      signal, even an analog signal (as long as it stays between 0 and 5 V)
      when the gate input is “H”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>When it’s “L”, then the gate acts as an open circuit.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>CMOS Multiplexer: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>This circuit uses two transmission gates to
      select one of two inputs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>If
      the logic input is “H”, then the output is a 40Hz triangle wave.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>If it’s “L”, then the output is a
      80Hz sine wave.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Sample-and-Hold: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>Click and hold the “sample” button to sample
      the input.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>When you release
      the button, the output level will be held constant.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Delayed Buffer:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> This circuit delays any changes in its input
      for 15 microseconds.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Leading-Edge
      Detector<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Switchable Filter:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> Click the “L” to select from two different
      low-pass filters.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Voltage Inverter<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Inverter Amplifier:
      </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>This shows how a CMOS inverter can
      be used as an amplifier.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Inverter Oscillator<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><a
     href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opamp">Op-Amps</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Amplifiers<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar.html#c2">Inverting
       Amplifier</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This one has a gain
       of –3.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar.html#c3">Non-Inverting
       Amplifier</a></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar2.html#c1">Follower</a></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar6.html#c1">Differential
       Amplifier</a></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar5.html#c1">Summing
       Amplifier</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_amplifier">Log Amplifier</a>: </b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'>output is the (inverted) log of the input<o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switching_amplifier">Class D
       Amplifier</a></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Oscillators</b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/square.html#c1">Relaxation
       Oscillator</a></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/oscphas.html">Phase-Shift
       Oscillator</a></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/analog/triangle_waveform_generator.html">Triangle
       Wave Generator</a></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/analog/sine_wave_generator.html">Sine
       Wave Generator</a></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.interq.or.jp/japan/se-inoue/e_ckt17.htm">Sawtooth Wave
       Generator</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Voltage-Controlled
       Oscillator: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Here the frequency of
       oscillation depends on the input (shown in the scope on the left).<span
       style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The oscillator outputs a square
       wave and a triangle wave.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossler_attractor">Rossler</a> <a
       href="http://math.arizona.edu/~ura/004/bergevin.chris/sync.html">Circuit</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Half-Wave Rectifier</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: An active rectifier that works on voltages
      smaller than a diode drop.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Full-Wave Rectifier<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Peak Detector</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit outputs the peak voltage of the
      input.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Whenever the input
      voltage is higher than the output, the output will be adjusted upward to
      match.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Press the switch
      marked “reset” to reset the peak voltage back to 0.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar4.html#c1">Integrator</a></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar4.html#c2">Differentiator</a></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/schmitt.html">Schmitt
      Trigger</a></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Negative Impedance
      Converter: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Converts the resistor to
      a “negative” resistor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>In
      the first graph, note that the current is 180° out of phase with the
      voltage.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrator">Gyrator</a></b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: The top circuit simulates the bottom circuit
      without using an inductor.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Capacitance
      Multiplier</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit allows you
      to simulate a large capacitor with a smaller one.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The effective capacitance of the
      top circuit is C1 x (R1/R2), and the effective resistance is R2.</span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Howland Current
      Source</b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>I-to-V Converter: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>The output voltage depends on the input
      current, which you can adjust with the switches.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opamp#Internal_circuitry">741
      Internals</a>:</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> The implementation of
      a 741 op-amp.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><a
     href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555_timer_IC">555 Timer Chip</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Square Wave
      Generator<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Internals:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> The implementation of a 555 chip, acting as a
      square wave oscillator</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Sawtooth Oscillator<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Low-duty-cycle
      Oscillator</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: produces short pulses.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Monostable
      Multivibrator</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This is a one-shot
      circuit that will produce a timed pulse when you click the “H”.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Pulse Position
      Modulator: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Produces pulses whose
      width is proportional to the input voltage.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Schmitt Trigger<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Missing Pulse
      Detector: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Setting the logic input
      low will turn off the square wave input.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>The missing pulse detector will detect the missing
      input and bring the output high.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Active Filters<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>VCVS Low-Pass Filter:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> An active Butterworth low-pass filter.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>VCVS High-Pass
      Filter<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Switched-Capacitor
      Filter:</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> A digital filter,
      implemented using capacitors and analog switches.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Logic Families<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>RTL Logic Family<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_inverter.html">RTL
       Inverter</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: The white “H” is a
       logic input.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Click on it to
       toggle its state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>“H” means
       “high” (3.6 V) and “L” means “low” (0 V).<span style="mso-spacerun:
       yes">&nbsp; </span>The output of the inverter is shown at right, and is
       the opposite of the input.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_nor4.html">RTL
       NOR</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: The three inputs are at
       the bottom, and the output is to the right.<span style="mso-spacerun:
       yes">&nbsp; </span>The output is “L” if any of the inputs are “H”.<span
       style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Otherwise it’s “H”.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>RTL NAND</b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'>: The output is “H” unless all three inputs
       are “H”, and then it’s “L”.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>DTL Logic Family<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/dtl_inverter.html">DTL
       Inverter</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/dtl_nand3.html">DTL
       NAND</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/dtl_nor2.html">DTL
       NOR</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>TTL Logic Family<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/ttl_inverter.html">TTL
       Inverter</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>TTL NAND<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/ttl_inverter.html">TTL
       NOR</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMOS">NMOS Logic Family</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>NMOS Inverter<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>NMOS Inverter 2</b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'>: This uses a second MOSFET instead of a
       resistor, to save space on a chip.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>NMOS NAND<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/electronics/cmos_gates.html">CMOS
      Logic Family</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>CMOS Inverter<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>CMOS NAND<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>CMOS NOR<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>CMOS XOR<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/nandlatch.html#c1">CMOS
       Flip-Flop</a> (or latch)</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This
       circuit consists of two CMOS NAND gates.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/cmos_d_flip-flop.html">CMOS
       Master-Slave Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/electronics/ecl_gates.html">ECL
      Logic Family</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>ECL NOR/OR<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.google.com/patents?vid=USPAT6133754">Ternary</a>: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>This demonstrates three-valued logic, where
      the inputs can be 0, 1, or 2 instead of H and L.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>This logic is implemented using
      MOSFETs; the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_voltage">threshold
      voltage</a> of each one is shown.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>CGAND: </b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'>the output is 2-X where X is the minimum of
       the two inputs.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>CGOR: </b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'>the output is 2-X where X is the maximum of
       the two inputs.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Complement.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>F211: </b><span
       style='font-weight:normal'>0 becomes 2, 1 becomes 1, 2 becomes 1.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>F220<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>F221<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Combinational Logic<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/xor_function.html">Exclusive OR
      (XOR)</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/adder.html">Half Adder</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/adder.html">Full Adder</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>1-of-4 Decoder<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/multiplexer_two_input.html">2-to-1
      Mux</a>: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>This multiplexer uses two
      tri-state buffers connected to the output.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Majority Logic: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>The output is high if a majority of the inputs
      are high.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>2-Bit Comparator</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>: Tells you if the two-bit input A is greater
      than, less than, or equal to the two-bit input B.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>7-Segment LED
      Decoder<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Sequential Logic<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Flip-Flops<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/rs_nand_latch.html">SR
       Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/clocked_rs_latch.html">Clocked
       SR Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/d_nand_flip-flop.html">Master-Slave
       Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>Edge-Triggered D
       Flip-Flop</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>: This circuit changes
       state when the clock makes a positive transistion.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Counters<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/ripple_counter.html">4-Bit
       Ripple Counter</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b>8-Bit Ripple
       Counter<o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/synchronous_counter.html">Synchronous
       Counter</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/decimal_counter.html">Decimal
       Counter</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_code">Gray Code Counter</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l3 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><a
       href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/johnson_counter.html">Johnson
       Counter</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/frequency_dividers.html">Divide-by-2</a>:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> Divides the input frequency by 2.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/frequency_dividers.html">Divide-by-3</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>LED Flasher: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>This circuit uses a decade counter to flash
      some LED’s in a back and forth pattern.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Bill_Bowden/page10.htm">Traffic
      Light</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Dynamic RAM:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> This is a simple model of a dynamic RAM
      chip.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>To read from the chip,
      select the bit you want using the row select lines.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>To write, select the data bit you
      want to write, and click the “write” switch.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>To refresh a bit, click the “refresh” switch.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b>Analog/Digital<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter#ADC_structures">Flash
      ADC</a>:</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> This is a
      direct-conversion, or “flash” analog-to-digital converter.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation">Delta-Sigma
      ADC</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/1023/">Half-Flash
      (Subranging) ADC</a>: </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Also known as
      a pipeline ADC.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The first
      stage converts the input voltage to a four-bit digital value.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Then, a DAC converts these four
      bits to analog, and then a comparator calculates the difference between
      this and the input voltage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
      </span>Another ADC converts this to digital, giving a total of eight
      bits. </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_to_analog_converter#DAC_types">Binary-Weighted
      DAC</a></b><span style='font-weight:normal'>:<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>Converts a four-bit binary number to a negative
      voltage.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_to_analog_converter#DAC_types">R-2R
      Ladder DAC</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Switch Tree DAC<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Digital Sine Wave<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><a
     href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLL">Phase-Locked Loops</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>XOR Phase Detector:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> Shows an XOR gate being used as a type I
      phase detector.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The output
      is high whenever the two input signals are not in phase.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><a
      href="http://www.uoguelph.ca/~antoon/gadgets/pll/pll.html">Type I PLL</a>:</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> This phase-locked loop circuit consists of an
      XOR gate (the phase detector), a low-pass filter (the resistor and
      capacitor), a follower (the op-amp), and a voltage-controlled oscillator
      chip.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The voltage-controlled
      oscillator outputs a frequency proportional to the input voltage.<span
      style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>After the PLL circuit locks onto
      the input frequency, the output frequency will be the same as the input
      frequency (with a small phase delay).</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Phase Comparator
      (Type II): </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Shows a more
      sophisticated phase detector, which has no output when the inputs are in
      phase, but outputs high (5V) when input 1 is leading input 2, and low
      (0V) when input 2 is leading input 1.<span style="mso-spacerun:
      yes">&nbsp; </span>The phase comparator and VCO in this applet are based
      on the <a href="http://www.fairchildsemi.com/pf/MM/MM74HC4046.html">4046
      chip</a>.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Phase Comparator
      Internals.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Type II PLL: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>Shows a phase-locked loop with a type II phase
      detector.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>If you adjust the
      input frequency, the output should lock onto it in a short time.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Type II PLL (fast):</b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'> Just a faster simulation of the type II PLL.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Frequency Doubler<o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l3 level1 lfo3;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><a
     href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line">Transmission Lines</a><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Simple TL: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>A properly terminated transmission line,
      showing the delay as the signal travels down the line.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Standing Wave: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>A standing wave on a shorted transmission
      line.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Termination: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>The top line is terminated properly, but the
      others are not, and so the incoming wave is reflected.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Mismatched lines: </b><span
      style='font-weight:normal'>Shows reflections caused by the middle line
      having a different impedance than the other two lines.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l3 level2 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b>Mismatched lines 2:
      </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>Shows a standing wave on the first
      line, caused by the second line having a different impedance.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></li>
 </ul>
</ul>
<p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto'>To
add a new component to the circuit, click the right mouse button on an unused
area of the window.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>This will
bring up a menu that allows you to select what component you want.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Then click where you want the first
terminal of the component, and drag to where you want the other terminal.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The menu items allow you to create:</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>wires</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>resistors; you can adjust the resistance after creating
the resistor by clicking the right mouse button and selecting “Edit”</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>capacitors; you can adjust the capacitance using “Edit”</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>inductors, switches, transistors, etc.</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>voltage sources, in either 1-terminal or 2-terminal
varieties.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The 1-terminal versions
use ground as the other terminal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>By clicking the right mouse button and selecting “Edit”, you can modify
the voltage and the waveform of the voltage source, changing it to DC, AC (sine
wave), square wave, triangle, sawtooth, or pulse.<span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">&nbsp; </span>If it’s not a DC source, you can also change the frequency
and the DC offset.</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>op-amps, with power supply limits of –15V and 15V
assumed (not shown).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The limits
can be adjusted using “Edit”.</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>text labels, which you can modify with the “Edit”
dialog</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo20;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]>scope probes; these have no effect on the circuit, but
if you select them and use the right mouse menu item “View in Scope”, you can
view the voltage difference between the terminals.</p>

<p style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto'>Also
in the “Other” submenu, there are some items that allow you to click and drag
sections of the circuit around.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>Save your work before trying these.</p>

<p style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto'>The
<b>File </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>menu allows you to import or
export circuit description files.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>Java security restrictions usually prevent an applet from writing files
to a user’s computer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>So instead,
when you select the </span><b>File-&gt;Export</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>
menu item, the applet brings up a window containing the description file for
the circuit, which you can copy and paste into another application.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>You can paste the file back into the
window later and click </span><b>Import</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> to
load it.</span></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto'>The
<b>Reset </b><span style='font-weight:normal'>button resets the circuit to a
reasonable state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The </span><b>Stopped
</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>checkbox allows you to stop the
simulation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The </span><b>Simulation
Speed</b><span style='font-weight:normal'> slider allows you to adjust the
speed of the simulation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>If the
simulation isn’t time-dependent (that is, if there are no capacitors,
inductors, or time-dependent voltage sources), then this won’t have any effect.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The </span><b>Current Speed</b><span
style='font-weight:normal'> slider lets you adjust the speed of the dots, in
case the currents are so weak (or strong) that the dots are moving too slowly
(or too quickly).</span></p>

<p style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto'>To
edit one of the scope views, click the right mouse button on it to view a
menu.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>The menu items allow you to
remove a scope view, speed up or slow down the display, adjust the scale,
select what value(s) you want to view, etc.</p>

<p style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto'>Here
are some errors you might encounter when using the simulator:</p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo22;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>Voltage source loop with no resistance!</b><span
style='font-weight:normal'> – this means one of the voltage sources in your
circuit is shorted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Make sure
there is some resistance across every voltage source.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo22;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>Capacitor loop with no resistance! </b><span
style='font-weight:normal'>– it’s not allowed to have any current loops
containing capacitors but no resistance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>For example, capacitors connected in parallel are not allowed; you must
put a resistor in series with them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;
</span>Shorted capacitors are allowed.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo22;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>Singular matrix!</b><span style='font-weight:normal'>
– this means that your circuit is inconsistent (two different voltage sources
connected to each other), or that the voltage at some point is undefined.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>It might mean that some component’s
terminals are unconnected; for example, if you create an op-amp but haven’t
connected anything to it yet, you will get this error.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo22;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>Convergence failed!</b><span style='font-weight:
normal'> – this means the simulator can’t figure out what the state of the
circuit should be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Just click </span><b>Reset</b><span
style='font-weight:normal'> and hopefully that should fix it.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Your circuit might be too complicated,
but this happens sometimes even with the examples.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo22;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>Transmission line delay too large! </b><span
style='font-weight:normal'>– the transmission line delay is too large compared
to the timestep of the simulator, so too much memory would be required.<span
style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Make the delay smaller.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:.25in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo22;tab-stops:list .25in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><![endif]><b>Need to ground transmission line! </b><span
style='font-weight:normal'>– the bottom two wires of a transmission line must
always be grounded in this simulator.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<p><a href="index.html">Click here to go to the applet.</a> </p>


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